Brief Solution For Writing Problems

(Thanks to Prof Rick Jackson at Queen's University)

Punctuation
Commas are used for several purposes, all of which are meant to make reading easier:
•to separate words or phrases in a list;
•to set off words, phrases, or clauses from the main thought of the sentence;
•to separate two complete thoughts joined by conjunctions such as “and” or “but”.

A good general rule is to put a comma where you would pause when speaking. For example, try reading aloud the following sentences, in which commas are placed correctly:
e.g:During this time, there were only three possible courses of action, and each one presented its own concerns.
During this time, there were only three possible courses of action, all of them potentially dangerous, and each one presented its own concerns.
During this time, there were only three possible courses of action: to proceed at full speed, to delay in the hope of help arriving, or to move ahead carefully.

A comma is not normally used when one part of the sentence cannot stand on its own:
e.g. We made the decision hastily and had to suffer the consequences.
(“had to suffer the consequences” cannot stand on its own.)
But,We made the decision hastily, and we had to suffer the consequences.
(“we had to suffer the consequences” is a complete thought and so can stand on its own; therefore, a comma is used.)

Commas must not be used to join two independent clauses (complete thoughts) without a conjunction (like “and” or “but”)—the infamous “comma splice”, which used to deny Ontario high-school English students the chance to lead a fruitful life:

Wrong: There were only three possible courses of action, each one presented its own concerns.
Correct:There were only three possible courses of action; each one presented its own concerns.
Or:
There were only three possible courses of action. Each one presented its own concerns.

Semi-colons are used to separate independent clauses, as in the above example, or in a list when commas might cause confusion.

Reports have been received from Ted Johnson, President of the Toronto branch; Peter Rickett, chief of operations in Beirut; Sylvester Stallone, head of Special Services in Miami; and Mata Hari, chief intelligence officer in Albania.
They are also used when words like “however”, “therefore”, “rather”, and “otherwise” are used to join two independent clauses.

e.g.Time is short; therefore, we must act quickly.
We don’t like to act hastily; however, we have no choice.
We must act now; otherwise, the team will be short of time.

Colons are used to indicate that an explanation or amplification follows.
e.g.This plan has three advantages: simplicity, economy, and precision.
There is a good reason for the delay: the client must approve our decision

It is also used when a list follows in vertical format, such as bullet points or numbered points, as in
The possibility of legal action led us to consider:
•how many people were involved;
•the frequency of interaction;
•the consequences of closing one office.

This has led people to use it, incorrectly, as in the following examples. There is no need for a colon in such cases.
Wrong:The ingredients for shortbread include: flour, butter, sugar, and eggs.
Correct:The ingredients for shortbread include flour, butter, sugar, and eggs.

Wrong:The only things we were missing were: information, time, and money.
Correct:The only things we were missing were information, time, and money.

Apostrophes are used to replace omitted letters (e.g. can’t, they’ll) or to form plurals and possessives, as in the following example:

Singular Plural Singular possessive Plural possessive
company companies company’s
(= of or belonging to the company) companies’
(= of or belonging to the companies)

e.g. Three companies did business in the local area. One company’s work was inferior to the other companies’ products.
Be particularly careful with pronouns:
it’s = it is (e.g. It ain’t over until it’s over.)
its = belonging to it (e.g. We know it’s ready when its colour changes.)
who’s = who is (e.g. He’s not someone who’s likely to give up.)
whose = possessive (e.g. We need people whose ideas are imaginative.)

Hyphens are used to group words when they are used to modify or describe something. The objective is to make reading easier and to avoid confusion or ambiguity.e.g. In his leisure time, he enjoyed leisure-time activities.
To prevent the company from firing any employee without just cause, the union campaigned for a just-cause provision.
Last year’s first-year students are now in second year.
A few years ago, an editorial in the Kingston Whig-Standard heralded the September return of “10,000 odd students”. Presumably, they meant “10,000-odd students”.

Abbreviations should be followed by periods. Some commonly misused abbreviations:
i.e. means “that is”, the translation of the Latin, “id est”.
e.g. means “for example”, from the Latin, “exempli gratia”.
They are not interchangeable, and they should not be used in speech: you should say, “that is”, not “i.e.”
et al. means “and others”, the translation of the Latin, “et alii”. Note that “et” is a full word, so a period is not used.
“British” and “American” Spelling
Canadians often use British forms, like humour and labour, and meagre and centre. Use whichever form you prefer, be sure to use it consistently.

Other Common Problems:
Wrong Correct
anyways anyway
with (in) regards to with (in)regard to, as regards
hone in on home in on
pawn off on palm off on
very (or rather) unique unique means one of a kind: there are no degrees of uniqueness

The plural form of criterion is criteria; likewise, phenomenon and phenomena.
Principle is always a noun; it is never used as an adjective. When you mean “main” or “primary”, the correct word is principal.
lose loose
affect effect
flout flaunt
lead led
complement compliment
stationary stationery
moral morale
counsel council
altogether all together
me myself
libel liable
less / amount fewer / number
among between
their there
partake participate

Use of Numbers
Numbers from one to ten are spelled out; numbers above ten may be expressed in figures except at the beginning of a sentence, when they are always spelled out. Exceptions are also made for the sake of consistency when the topic involves a lot of numbers, such as percentages.

Capitalization in Titles and Headings
In titles, the first letter of all words, however short, should be capitalized, except prepositions (e.g. in, at, from, under), articles (e.g. a, an, the), and conjunctions (e.g. and, but, for). Some people prefer not to capitalize headings; that’s up to you, but be consistent, whatever you decide.